Free Essays on Socrates

In Plato’s Symposium there are three major speeches given by Aristophanes, Socrates and Alcibiades, where each portrays a different aspect of human sexuality and love. Aristophanes’ speech is a fantastic representation of humans that were separated into two halves engaged in desperate search for their other half, while Socrates’ speech is a rhetoric of a conversation he was engaged in with the priestess Diotima, and finally Alcibiades’ speech is a tribute to his teacher Socrates. Even though Aristophones’ speech is a fantastical story that explained why humans are in constant, desperate search for our lost halves, it still captures the tragedy of human sexuality and love. The beings described within the story are characterized by their narcissistic nature, which results in their eventual demise. Aristophanes describes these beings as; They were round, and so was the way they moved, because they took after their parents. They were terrible in their strength and vigour: they had great ambitions and made an attack on the gods. The story told by Homer about Ephilates and Otus, how they tried to climb up to heaven to attack the gods, really refers to them (190b). This attack on the gods is what eventually led to the condition that humans have constantly been in since, as Plato tells us; The gods didn’t see how they could kill them, wiping out the human race with thunderbolts as they’d done with the giants; if they did that the honours and sacrifices the gods received from them would disappear. But they couldn’t let them go on behaving outrageously. After much hard thought, Zeus had an idea; â€Å"I think I have a plan by which human beings could still exist but be too weak to carry on their wild behavior. I shall now cut each of them into two; they will be weaker and also more useful to us because there will be more of them. They will walk around upright on two legs†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (190b-c). Plato then tells us that the ... Free Essays on Socrates Free Essays on Socrates Socrates has thoroughly justified his own decision to obey the opinions of the majority and serve out the sentence that his own city has deemed appropriate for his crimes. At the beginning of this piece, Socrates has presented a period of questions and answers through dialogue with Crito. Throughout the dialogue Socrates is explaining his reasoning for not running from the government. Crito does not understand the madness of Socrates, Crito will do whatever it takes to help his friend to flee, instead of being exiled by the government. AI do not think that what you are doing is right, to give up your life when you can save it, and to hasten your fate as your enemies would hasten it, and indeed have hastened it in their wish to destroy you.@(Crito p.58c) Throughout the begining of the dialog, Crito is expressing his feelings of why he believes Socrates should flee from the city. Crito makes many valid points on why he disagrees with Socrates decision to bare this misfortune. Crito offers to do on not fleeingbeing majorints expressing to Socrates, that a man as courageous as Socrates and who has lived his life through virtue . AYou seem to me to choose the easiest path, whereas one should choose the path a good and courageous man would choose, particularly when one claims throughout one=s life to care for virtue.@(Crito p.59d) Through the dialogue the questions and answers within Socrates and Crito establish to major themes in which hold true throughout the work. The first being that a person must decide whether the society in which one lives has a just reasoning behind it=s own standards of right and wrong. The second being, that a person must have pride in the life that he or she leads. In establishing basic questions of these two concepts, Socrates has precluded his own circumstance and attempted to prove to his companion Crito, that the choice that he has made is just. AI am the ... Free Essays on Socrates A virtue such as honesty or generosity is not just a tendency to do what is honest or generous, nor is it to be helpfully specified as a "desirable" or "morally valuable" character trait. It is, indeed a character trait that is, a disposition which is well entrenched in its possessor, something that, as we say "goes all the way down", unlike a habit such as being a tea-drinker but the disposition in question, far from being a single track disposition to do honest actions, or even honest actions for certain reasons, is multi-track. It is concerned with many other actions as well, with emotions and emotional reactions, choices, values, desires, perceptions, attitudes, interests, expectations and sensibilities. To possess a virtue is to be a certain sort of person with a certain complex mindset. (Hence the extreme recklessness of attributing a virtue on the basis of a single action.) The most significant aspect of this mindset is the wholehearted acceptance of a certain range of considerations as reasons for action. An honest person cannot be identified simply as one who, for example, practices honest dealing, and does not cheat. If such actions are done merely because the agent thinks that honesty is the best policy, or because they fear being caught out, rather than through recognising "To do otherwise would be dishonest" as the relevant reason, they are not the actions of an honest person. An honest person cannot be identified simply as one who, for example, always tells the truth, nor even as one who always tells the truth because it is the truth, for one can have the virtue of honesty without being tactless or indiscreet. The honest person recognises "That would be a lie" as a strong (though perhaps not overriding) reason for not making certain statements in certain circumstances, and gives due, but not overriding, weight to "That would be the truth" as a re ason for making them. An honest person's reasons and choices with resp... Free Essays on Socrates In the ancient time of Socrates, role models were usually men or women who conformed to the traditional ways of their society. Socrates, as we know, exemplifies a defyer of the common beliefs and culture. Role models, today, seem to be more individualistic and driven by their uncustomary ideas and newfound viewpoints. They explore the unknown and completely conform the norms of our societies; that is what makes them so exceptional. I believe that Socrates personifies today’s role model which is one who shows that sometimes conventional values of a culture may not be the only values or ways. Socrates rises above tradition to a unique, new way of practice. Role models are people who are usually passionate, strong personalities that perform some great deed that others may admire. Socrates proves to his audience through his spoken words during his defense (Apology), that he is a role model to the city-state of Athens and humanity in general. As he speaks of his false charges of corrupting the youth and not believing in or inventing new gods, he proves that his reputation, his soul and his honor are more important than his own life; â€Å"... judges of the court, must have good hopes towards death, and this one thing you must take as true- no evil can happen to a good man either living or dead, and his business is not neglected... that to die now and to be free from trouble is better for me.† (Apology 446) Socrates feels he is being true to himself, no matter what any other person may feel and this is why he is an outstanding example of a role model. Socrates, not only stands up to men that have brought him to trial, but he also persuades Crito, his friend, that being true and just is better than escaping from prison. Here, Socrates becomes the role model to his friends and followers, while trying to rise above all of the false and unfair accusations. Socrates procl... Free Essays on Socrates In Plato’s Symposium there are three major speeches given by Aristophanes, Socrates and Alcibiades, where each portrays a different aspect of human sexuality and love. Aristophanes’ speech is a fantastic representation of humans that were separated into two halves engaged in desperate search for their other half, while Socrates’ speech is a rhetoric of a conversation he was engaged in with the priestess Diotima, and finally Alcibiades’ speech is a tribute to his teacher Socrates. Even though Aristophones’ speech is a fantastical story that explained why humans are in constant, desperate search for our lost halves, it still captures the tragedy of human sexuality and love. The beings described within the story are characterized by their narcissistic nature, which results in their eventual demise. Aristophanes describes these beings as; They were round, and so was the way they moved, because they took after their parents. They were terrible in their strength and vigour: they had great ambitions and made an attack on the gods. The story told by Homer about Ephilates and Otus, how they tried to climb up to heaven to attack the gods, really refers to them (190b). This attack on the gods is what eventually led to the condition that humans have constantly been in since, as Plato tells us; The gods didn’t see how they could kill them, wiping out the human race with thunderbolts as they’d done with the giants; if they did that the honours and sacrifices the gods received from them would disappear. But they couldn’t let them go on behaving outrageously. After much hard thought, Zeus had an idea; â€Å"I think I have a plan by which human beings could still exist but be too weak to carry on their wild behavior. I shall now cut each of them into two; they will be weaker and also more useful to us because there will be more of them. They will walk around upright on two legs†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (190b-c). Plato then tells us that the ... Free Essays on Socrates The unexamined life is not worth living†¦ -Socrates Socrates was a Greek philosopher who profoundly affected Western philosophy through his influence on Plato. Born 469BC in Athens to Sophroniscus, a sculptor, and Phaenarete, a midwife, he received the regular elementary education in literature, music, and gymnastics. Later he familiarized himself with the rhetoric and dialectics of the Sophists, the speculations of the Ionian philosophers, and the general culture of Periclean Athens. Initially, Socrates followed the craft of his father; according to a former tradition, he executed a statue group of the three Graces, which stood at the entrance to the Acropolis until the 2nd century AD. In the Peloponnesian War with Sparta he served as an infantryman with conspicuous bravery at the battles of Potidaea in 432-430BC, Delium in 424BC, and Amphipolis in 422BC. Socrates believed in the superiority of argument over writing and therefore spent the greater part of his mature life in the marketplace and public places of Athens, engaging in d ialogue and argument with anyone who would listen or who would submit to interrogation. Socrates was reportedly unattractive in appearance and short of stature but was also extremely hardy and self-controlled. He enjoyed life immensely and achieved social popularity because of his ready wit and a keen sense of humor that was completely devoid of satire or cynicism. Socrates was obedient to the laws of Athens, but he generally steered clear of politics, restrained by what he believed to be divine warning. He believed that he had received a call to pursue philosophy and could serve his country best by devoting himself to teaching, and by persuading the Athenians to engage in self-examination and in tending to their souls. He wrote no books and established no regular school of philosophy. All that is known with certainty about his personality and his way of thinking is derived from the works of two of... Free Essays on Socrates Socrates believes that the everyday world is an illusion compared to the world of knowledge. People are often too distracted by money and materialistic things to appreciate truth and reality. Socrates says, â€Å"the capacity for knowledge is innate in each man’s mind.† This exemplifies the point that man has the ability to look into the world of truth, but when one is caught up in superficiality then truth does not receive the attention and glory that it should. This is why Socrates feels that the arts, such as poetry, should be censored; it would help decrease the digression of society’s intellect. In today’s world television and movies are complications that only hinder the thought processes in society. When people are consumed in the shallow world, they see reality as mere shadows compared to truth. Many times, violent images seen in movies will remain in a person’s mind. This obsession with violence and action takes away from concentration on â€Å"the good† and does not benefit society. â€Å"The bad† does not change when one is exposed to it, â€Å"the bad† changes the person. So, by limiting this exposure to violence one can focus on finding â€Å"the good.† â€Å"The good†, according to Socrates is â€Å"the source not only of the intelligibility of the objects of knowledge, but also of their being and reality.† When the mind is preoccupied with the desultory world, it does not see truth; that which is important and real. Television today is geared towards brainless viewing. MTV shows display fast images that do not require any thinking, but only keep the eye entertained. This is a form of â€Å"eye candy† which is society’s form of entertainment, rather than looking for the meaning of life and the good in the world. Viewers are sucked into this and no longer care about anything other than instant pleasure. Not all pleasure is considered good, and this type of instant pleasure is not. Pleasure should not be taken to the ... Free Essays on Socrates The main argument in The Apology by famous ancient Greek philosopher Plato is whether, notorious speaker and philosopher Socrates is corrupting the youth by preaching ungodly theories and teaching them unlawful ideas that do harm to individuals and society. In his words Socrates quoted the prosecution’s accusation against him: â€Å"Socrates is guilty of corrupting the minds of the young, and of believing in supernatural things of his own invention instead of the gods recognized by the state.† 1 Further Socrates consistently introduces tediously compiled number of examples to provide valid and sound arguments to prove that he is innocent of the charges brought up against him to the court. The first approach that Socrates uses to prove his innocence’s is he uses a practical comparison between horses and all living and artifical things â€Å"Take the case of horses; do you believe that those who improve them make up the whole of the mankind and that there is only one person who has a bad effect on them? Or is the truth just the opposite that the ability to improve them belongs to one person or to very few persons, who are horse-trainers, whereas most people, if they have to do with horses and make use of them, do them harm.† 2 The premises in this quote are: 1. Horse trainers do improve horses. 2. Those who use the horses do not enhance them. 3. There are more horse owners than the horse trainers. 4. Therefore, the improvements come from a small group of specialist, while the corruption comes from most people. 5. What is true for horses is true for all living and artificial things. The conclusion that can be made about these premises is that Socrates is not the one who is corrupting the youth because he is a specialist in this field. In addition, the real corruptors of the youth are the greater population of Athens because they are not specialist on teaching wisdom. What important about this conclusion is that even though... Free Essays on Socrates Socrates was born in Athens on 470?BC and died on 399?BC. Socrates was the son of Sophroniscus. Socrates received the regular elementary education in literature, music, and gymnastics. Later he familiarized himself with the Sophists. Socrates followed the talent of his father he also believed in the power of argument over writing. For that reason he spent the greater part of his life in the marketplace and public places of Athens, engaging in discussion and argument with anyone who would listen or who would submit to questioning. Socrates was unattractive in appearance and short of height but was also very tough and self-controlled. He enjoyed life greatly and achieved social popularity because of his ready wit and a keen sense of humor. Socrates was very obedient to the laws of Athens. He believed that he had received a call to practice philosophy and could serve his country best by devoting himself to teaching. He wrote no books and set up no regular school of philosophy. All that is known about his personality and his way of thinking is taken from the works of two of his well-known scholars: Plato, and the historian Xenophon. Plato portrayed Socrates as hiding behind a profession of ignorance that enabled him to go through arguments with great facility. Justice, love, virtue, and the self-knowledge that he instilled, were the basis of his teachings. He believed that all vice is the result of ignorance, and that no person is bad. Socrates was also the teacher of Aristippus. Although a patriot and a man of deep religious belief, Socrates was regarded with suspicion by many of his colleagues, who disliked his attitude toward the Athenian state and the established religion. He was charged in 399 BC with neglecting the gods of the state and introducing new divinities. He was also charged with demeaning the morals of the young. He was condemned to die. Socrates proposed only to pay a small fine because of his value to the state as a... Free Essays on Socrates â€Å"Socrates† The most interesting and influential thinker from a Logic perspective was Socrates, whose dedication to careful reasoning transformed the entire enterprise of Philosophy. Since he sought genuine knowledge rather than mere victory over an opponent, Socrates employed the same logical tricks developed by the Sophists to a new purpose, the pursuit of truth. We know much about his life, methods and results from the writings of his students such as Plato, as he himself never wrote anything. The problem some scholars have with Plato is that he had a tendency to interject his own theories and commentary into dialogues that were presented to the world as discussions between Socrates and other famous figures of the day. During his life, Socrates utilized four aspects in his approach to philosophy. They are; Ironic Modesty, Questioning Habit, Devotion to Truth, and Dispassionate Reason. His philosophy, sadly, ultimately lead him to trial in the Athenian court, where he was sentenced to dea th. Rather than give up his philosophy, he chooses death. His friends even came up with a foolproof plan to free him, but as the plot was starting, he calmly engaged in a rational debate of the moral value of such action. Socrates reasoned that 1) One ought to never do wrong, 2) But it is always wrong to disobey the state, 3) Hence one ought never disobey the state. Since avoiding his sentence of death would be such an action of disobedience to the state, Socrates is not compelled to escape. In the end, Socrates himself was entirely convinced that these arguments hold, so he concluded that it would be wrong for him to escape from prison. As is many similar cases before, his actions conformed to the outcome of his reasoning. Socrates chose to honor his commitment to truth and morality even though it cost him his life.... Free Essays on Socrates k ´rtz) (KEY) , 469–399 B.C., Greek philosopher of Athens. Famous for his view of philosophy as a pursuit proper and necessary to all intelligent men, he is one of the great examples of a man who lived by his principles even though they ultimately cost him his life. Knowledge of the man and his teachings comes indirectly from certain dialogues of his disciple Plato and from the Memorabilia of Xenophon. In spite of conflicting interpretations of his teachings, the accounts of these two writers are largely supplementary. 1 Life Socrates was the son of Sophroniscus, a sculptor. It is said that in early life he practiced his father’s art. In middle life he married Xanthippe, who is legendary as a shrew, although the stories have little basis in ascertainable fact. It is not certain who were Socrates’s teachers in philosophy, but he seems to have been acquainted with the doctrines of Parmenides, Heraclitus, Anaxagoras, and the atomists. He was widely known for his intellectual powers even before he was 40, when, according to Plato’s report of Socrates’s speech in the Apology, the oracle at Delphi pronounced him the wisest man in Greece. In that speech Socrates maintained that he was puzzled by this acclaim until he discovered that, while others professed knowledge without realizing their ignorance, he at least was aware of his own ignorance. 2 Socrates became convinced that his calling was to search for wisdom about right conduct by which he might guide the intellectual and moral improvement of the Athenians. Neglecting his own affairs, he spent his time discussing virtue, justice, and piety wherever his fellow citizens congregated. Some felt that he also neglected public duty, for he never sought public office, although he was famous for his courage in the military campaigns in which he served. In his self-appointed task as gadfly to the Athenians, Socrates made numerous enemies. 3 Aristophanes burlesqued Socr... Free Essays on Socrates The results of recent scholarship on the subject of Socrates seem to make more and more imperative a fresh interpretation of his baffling and enigmatical figure. In recent years there has been a marked tendency to deal with all the great ancient thinkers in terms of a consistent pattern of development in their thought and to see them not, as it were, full grown and maturely developed but in the slow process of growth and evolution. The genetic method has been applied to Plato with marked success by generations of scholars and has culminated in the monumental work of Lutoslawski. Prof. Werner Jaeger's book on Aristotle seems to me to establish quite clearly the validity of applying a similar method to Aristotle. It is not, therefore, surprising that a suggestion made as long ago as 1811 by Wolf in his edition of the Clouds should in recent years be revived and that there should be a fresh disposition to believe that the Socrates of the Clouds and the Socrates of the Apology represent quite different and in a sense even contradictory stages in his development as a thinker. As evidence for this tendency we need only cite the introduction to Mr. W. R. F. Hardie's Study in Plato (page 6). One of the most important contributions of Prof. A. E. Taylor to the understanding of Socrates was made in his Varia Socratica - the perception that the trial was closely bound up with the political strivings of the time. But before an adequate explanation of the development of Socrates was possible, it was necessary to see much more clearly than has heretofore been possible, the relation of Socrates to the political struggles and social currents of his time. This could scarcely have been done until the ingenuity of a number of scholars had reconstructed the case for the prosecution as it was offered in the lost pamphlet of Polycrates. This piece of reconstruction removes much of the problem of the relation of Socrates to the politics of his times from t...

How to Control Your Bad Temper Before You Explode at Work

How to Control Your Bad Temper Before You Explode at Work It’s easy to get angered- even at work. Anger can be a normal and productive human emotion, but it can also take a toll on your relationships- professional and personal- and it’s not always best aired in the office. Here are a few tips for keeping your cool in stressful or unfair situations. So next time you find your blood boiling over that inappropriate email, try moderating your response to save your sanity and your professional reputation.1. Take a moment.Take a step back. Take a deep breath. Try to view the situation as you would if you were an indifferent third party. Try to avoid having a purely emotional reaction and analyze the situation. Will you still be angry about this in a year? If not, move on. Think before you speak or react because your reaction could always make the situation even worse.2. Be the reasonable one.In situations with high emotions or raised voices, be the sea of calm- the person who, in a low and rational tone of voice, diffuses the situat ion. This will help show that you are not the aggressor, which might help the actual aggressor to see the contrast and adjust accordingly.3. Don’t take things personally.Some things are personal. But in the business world, they’re usually not- especially if you’re an entrepreneur and your business just is personal to you, try to remember that it isn’t for your clients. Put yourself in others’ shoes and try to practice patience.4. Walk away.If you feel like you’re going to explode, try to remove yourself from the touchy situation  before that happens. You’ll save yourself and everyone else involved the embarrassment, plus give yourself some time to rethink, regroup, and restrategize.5. Speak from a place of calm.If you’ve got a legitimate grievance, you should air it. Just make sure you’re doing so via appropriate channels and you’re doing so when you’re calm enough to state your concerns without being hur tful or vengeful to others, and without relying on intensified emotion to make your case.6. Take a time out.Take some you time. Go for a walk. Take a few deep breaths. Hit the gym- the oxygen or the endorphins will help to physically calm you. You never know how much less angry you will feel once you’ve calmed down a bit. Nothing is ever as fraught as it feels in the heat of the moment. Relaxation skills are your friend.7. Come up with solutions.Are there constructive ways you could fix the situation or improve the outcome? A way to schedule a meeting to discuss disconnects or disgruntlements? A better way forward? Come up with a way to avoid these situations in the first place and you’ll be everybody’s hero.8. Say â€Å"I.†Sticking with I statements is a great way to try and find a resolution to a situation without angering anyone else or increase tension. Talk about why you are upset, not what others have done to make you so. And don’t hold grudg es. Allow yourself to forgive, forget, and move on from tense situations rather than stewing in the bitterness and injustice of it all or harboring ill feelings about your colleagues or boss.9. Crack a joke.Nothing diffuses a situation quiet like humor. Don’t make any jokes at anyone else’s expense, but see if you can’t find a lighthearted or funny comment that would put everyone- including yourself- at greater ease.10. Get help if you need it.If you still have a really hard time controlling your anger, then it might be a good idea for you to get some help. Especially if you feel your anger is easily out of control. Getting a handle on this will save you a lot of hurt and regret over the course of your life and career.

Arguing to Convince Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Arguing to Convince - Assignment Example However, the continued extent of freedom has being transferred to the formal set-up whereby individuals believe that restricting them to certain norms in the formal set-up is anyway violating the extent to which they can express their rights and freedoms. Therefore, to maintain their guaranteed rights and freedoms as well as the level of openness, the American modern culture has slowly been promoting a relaxation of restrictions that are normally associated with the formal set-up such as workplaces or formal meetings. This present essay intends to persuade or convince the readers that informality is a positive move towards a more open and natural society. Secondly, the essay will present arguments favoring or agreeing to live in an informal atmosphere. Formalities in the formal set-up According to Clemente, formal practices or behaviors are part of the tradition and culture and therefore, they are things that are passed from one generation to another, with the expectation that those who adhere to these formal practices or behaviors in a formal set-up are showing a high level of discipline and diligence (78-82). Kinosian stated that these formal practices and behaviors are associated with a particular set-up, atmosphere or environment whereby individuals are expected to adopt a particularly different set of behaviors and practices that are totally different with how they interact at home or in informal set-ups (549-551). Rapp and Jackson on their part stated that the formal practices and behaviors are part of the bureaucracies that are associated with formal set-up, where in a great extent there is existence of some form of restrictions to the individuals’ rights and freedoms (103-109). According to Smith, some of the rights that are in a greater extent limited due to the requirement of formal practices and behaviors include the freedom of dressing and speech. The freedom of dressing is restricted in the sense that individuals are limited in the type of c lothes they wear or how they can dress when going to a formal place or attending a formal function. While freedom of speech is limited in the sense that certain words or body of language are restricted in used in the formal set-up (176-181). Kinosian stated that the insistence of adhering to these formal practices or behaviors stifles individuals from fully expressing themselves and fully enjoying their rights and freedom, and it encourages people to have two different sides of characters that may greatly differ, which means that they facilitate people not be open and fully understood by others (549-551). Informality as part of the culture Kinosian stated that formality is part of the traditions and culture, however, informality has become part of the culture because there have been a continued reform of most cultures especially those that were considered retrogressive (549-551). The reforms on most of the world’s culture have been initiated by the heightened extent of global ization, which has enabled people from different cultures to interact thereby refine their individual cultures in order to adopt a common culture that does not lay great emphasis on formalities. Moreover, formalities limits the extent to which two different strangers may get to know each other because formal practices do not encourage probing and there is a strict guideline on how formal communication should take place. Therefore, people should agree to live in an informal atmosphere because it

Data Interpretation on Autism Spectrum Disorder Essay

Data Interpretation on Autism Spectrum Disorder - Essay Example The data or results collected from various stated aspects collected were analyzed using synchronous statistics such as percentages and frequencies. It was mainly presented using charts and graphs. The respondents were supposed to indicate the student’s name, school, age, sex and date. The number of times or female was chosen depended on many aspects. In this case the respondent was also expected to describe the referred student and his or her classroom. Then later selected another referred student of a different sex and indicate the difference between the two. According to the data collected on the score of language skills in the following aspects need for help, speech response rate, asking permission, talking while outside the class and clearly and then taking turns while speaking. The language skills of students are seen to improve in the last two weeks of the session. The skill on responding adequately while talked to is seen to improve in week three significantly up to week five. Students who took part in the skills session are seen to be possession of the asking for permission from the word go, that is from the time the language skills test session start. However, as they get used to the session the skills goes down significantly compared to other language skills determinants. In the second student the respondent shows that the student language skills are different when compared to those from the first student. The student ability to ask for assistance clearly has increased significantly from the first week of the session. The student level of having an engaging speech was perfect from the first week, however, it deteriorated in week 2 and week 2 then it shoots to be among the best language skills for the students. The clear language speaking skills are evident in last two weeks of the session. In this case the student the skill on responding while being talked to has shown significant improvement.

Prison Violence Essay Example for Free

Prison Violence Essay Incarceration rates rose to unprecedented levels in the history of the U.S.’s imprisonment. Therefore, concern about social control of the incarcerated, that is, prisoners’ behavior, has increased. High inmate disciplinary infractions, especially violent infractions, are a threat to the safety of prison, of correctional staff, and of other inmates. Nevertheless, the issue of discipline in prison is important from an economic perspective, because an estimated average cost per infraction at a medium security prison is $970 (Jiang Fisher-Giorlando, 2002). For these reasons, Jiang Fisher- Giorlando conducted a research to help explain violent incidents, incidents against correctional staff and incidents against other inmates in prison. Identifying the risk factors of inmates to commit violent acts of misconduct is of great importance to prison administration. This type of research can assist in the classification process of inmates entering institutions as well as the ongoing classification adjustments of inmates already in custody. This study will identify and investigate factors for violent institutional misconduct. These factors include; however, are not limited to race, age, education and employment, family ties, length of sentence, security level, prison environment and gender. The hypotheses of this study are: 1. Violent prison misconduct is more prevalent among African-American and Hispanic inmates than Caucasians or any other ethnic group. 2. Inmates who are residing in maximum-security facilities are more violent than inmates residing in medium or minimum-security facilities, especially towards correctional staff. Literature Review Race Several studies were conducted to examine the role of race in inmate adjustment process and prison misconduct, especially prison violence. There were indications that there is a direct relationship between race and violent prison misconduct. Those findings support theories such as prison adjustment and subculture of violence, which say that minority groups have higher rates of violence in prison society than white inmates (DeLisi et al., 2004; Griffin Hepburn, 2006; Gillespie, W., 2005; Jiang Fisher-Giorlando, 2002; Steiner Wooldredge, 2009). According to Wayne Gillespie (2005), Caucasian inmates appear less likely to engage in most types of misconduct compared to African American and Hispanic inmates. Blacks are more likely than Whites to evoke protective violent responses to perceived dangerous situations or threats of physical injury by aggressive, violent behavior aimed at protecting self or preventing retaliation (Gillespie, W., 2005). Age Age and prison violence had an inverse relationship. The older inmates were, the less likely they were to be involved in violent prison misconduct. Younger inmates were significantly more likely to be involved in violent prison misconduct. This relationship was widespread throughout all the studies (Cunningham Sorensen, 2007; DeLisi et al., 2004; Griffin Hepburn, 2006; Jiang Fisher-Giorlando, 2005; Ruddell et al., 2006; Sorensen Cunningham, 2008). Education and Employment Research shows an inverse relationship between level of education and rates of prison misconduct. As level of education increased, involvement in violent prison misconduct decreased (Cunningham Sorensen, 2007; DeLisi et al., 2004; Wooldredge et al., 2001). As stated by Wooldredge, Griffin, and Pratt (2001), inmates who were employed prior to incarceration were less likely to be involved in violent prison misconduct. This group was more invested in conforming because they had more to lose. Inmates who worked prior incarceration were more likely than other inmates to be concerned with going home and continuing employment. Family Ties Social and family support was inversely related to violent prison misconduct (Cunningham Sorensen, 2007; DeLisi et al., 2004; Jiang Fisher-Giorlando, 2005; Wooldredge et al., 2001). Inmates with less social and familial support committed significantly more acts of serious prison violence (DeLisi et al., 2004). Moreover, inmates who made and received more telephone calls from children were less likely to commit violent rule violations (Jiang, Fisher-Giorlando Mo, 2005). According to Jiang and colleagues (2005) inmates with strong family ties had more to lose if they were involved in violent prison misconduct. Sources of family support included mail, telephone calls, and visitations. Rule violations could result in loss of visiting privileges, which is a strong source of strengthening family ties. Length of Sentence The relationship between length of current sentence that inmates are serving and violent prison misconduct is debatable. Inmates with shorter sentences were more likely to commit violent acts. Short term sentenced inmates were usually younger and they still possessed a street mentality. Inmates with longer sentences were usually older and appeared to better understand the need to co-exist with other inmates as well as correctional staff (Wooldredge et al., 2001). Security Level Several studies showed that security level is a predictor of rule violation (Camp et al., 2003; Jiang Fisher-Giorlando, 2002; Steiner Wooldredge, 2008). To be more specific, inmates residing in working cell-blocks and dormitories are less likely than are those in lock-down cell-blocks to commit violence and incidents against correctional staff (Jiang Fisher-Giorlando, 2002). Prison Environment Prison environment exerts an influence on inmate misconduct, especially interpersonal violence (Blackburn et al., 2007; Camp et al., 2003; Steiner Wooldredge, 2008). Research conducted by Camp et al., (2003) indicated that prison’s organizational factors influenced inmates’ behavior that led to violent misconduct. Furthermore, institutions with inexperienced staff had greater report numbers of inmate misconduct. Moreover, prison crowding, as one of the ecological factors, influenced inmate behavior because it produces intermediate psychological states, such as depression that then lead to misconduct (Camp et al., 2003). Gender Previous studies showed that gender was inversely related to violent prison misconduct (Blackburn et al., 2007; Camp et al., 2003; Wolff et al., 2009). Male inmates reported higher percentage of physical victimization perpetrated by staff, although percentage of inmate on inmate physical victimization was equal for male and female inmates (Wolff et al., 2009). This suggests gender-patterned interactions between inmate and staff in which male inmates compared to female inmates are more aggressive against authority figures. In summary, what is known from the literature reviewed is that some factors might influence inmates’ behavior. What is missing is the correlation between those factors and prison violent misconduct, which is addressed by my study. Key variables identified in the reviewed literature are race, age, education and employment, family ties, length of sentence, security level and prison environment, which are incorporated into the study’s methodology as surve y and focus group questions. Theoretical Review To explain inmate behavior in prison three major theoretical models have been proposed. They are the deprivation, importation, and situational models. A true explanation of violent inmate misconduct lies in a combination of those three theories. However, the importation model can be use as the most legitimate singular explanation of violent prison misconduct. The main focus of an importation model is on the influence of pre- prison socialization and experience of the inmate on his/her behavior while being incarcerated (Jiang Fisher- Giorlando, 2002). According to Jiang Fisher- Giorlando (2002) inmates’ behavior can be largely determine by their distinctive traits and social backgrounds. The importation model is a reflection of a pre- prison norms and beliefs system of an inmate rather than a result of incarceration in a facility (Irvin Cressey, 1962; as cited in Jiang Fisher-Giorlando, 2002). As importation model implies inmate behavior while being behind the bars is an extension of the antisocial behaviors that criminal offenders developed in the community (DeLisi et al., 2004). Research Design The research design that I used was the analysis of an existing database. I downloaded and analyzed an existing data source from the National Archives of Criminal Justice Data, which can be found at www.ICPSR.org. The data source that I downloaded and analyzed has number 24642 and the title of it is Census of State and Federal Adult Correctional Facilities. The principle investigator of this study is United States Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics, and the time period is January 1st, 2005 to December 30th, 2005. I chose this dataset because it contains the information needed to do my study on prison violence misconduct. The 2005 Census of State and Federal Adult Correctional Facilities is the seventh enumeration of State institutions and the fourth of Federal institutions sponsored by the Bureau of Justice Statistics and its predecessors. Earlier censuses were completed in 1974, 1979, 1984, 1990, 1995 and 2000. The facility universe was developed from the Census of State and Federal Adult Correctional Facilities conducted in 2000. In 2000, data were collected from 84 federal facilities and 1,584 non-federal facilities operating on June 30th, 2000. In 2005, each State’s Department of Corrections was contacted to identify new facilities and facilities that had been closed since June 2000. Telephone follow-ups were carried out during 2006. All but one respondent-State of Illinois- participated in the Census.My study determines if in a time period between January 1st, 2005 and December 30th, 2005, the correctional facilities used in existing dataset 24642 experienced physical or sexual assaults, misconduct against correctional staff and misconduct against other inmates. The response options for dependent variables have values such as: 1 which is label Yes, 2 which is label No, and 9 or 999 which is label Missing. This study aims to determine if independent variables such as race, age, education and employment, family ties, length of sentence, security level, prison environment and gender have a strong correlation with the dependent variables. Data Analysis For my analyses, I used SPSS Statistics program in version 18.0. I ran frequencies and descriptive tests on both dependent and independent variables. Moreover, I ran ANOVA and t-test to test how facility security levels and race/ethnicity of the inmates impact or don’t the amount of violence. Results Table 1: Age of the inmates residing in the facilities during the 1- year period of 2005 (Independent Variable). |Descriptive Statistics | | | | |Frequency |Percent |Valid Percent |Cumulative Percent | |Valid |Yes |475 |26.1 |28.6 | As seen in Table 2, during the 1-year period of 2005, 28.6 percent of facilities indicated that yes, there were physical or sexual assaults. The other 71.4 percent indicated that there were no physical or sexual assaults. As seen below in Table 3, during the same year period there was an average of just under 16 inmate-on-inmate assaults at facilities. I also ran a frequency table of staff deaths by inmates, but there were very few. Table 3: During the 1- year period of 2005 how many inmate on inmates assaults (Dependent Variable). | | | | | |N |Minimum |Maximum |Mean | | | | | | | |Y1_BETWEEN 1/1/2005 AND 12/30/2005 WERE THERE PHYSICAL OR SEXUAL ASSAULTS | The results in the above tables test my hypothesis about how facility security levels impact (or don’t) the amount of violence, using three different measures of the dependent variable: physical or sexual assaults; inmate deaths; and inmate-on-inmate assaults. I ran three ANOVA (analysis of variance) tests, and the results are shown above. Only the ANOVA tests for Y1 and Y3 were statistically significant. There was no difference by security level in the number of staff deaths by inmates, probably because those were low to begin with. However, in terms of physical and sexual assaults (Y1), these were highest at minimum and low-security facilities (mean =1.91). In terms of inmate-on-inmate assaults, these were highest Maximum/close/high facilities, with an average of nearly 34 assaults by inmates on other inmates in 2005. Table 7: Type of Violence by Race/Ethnicity | | |Y1_BETWEEN 1/1/2005 |Y3_BETWEEN 1/1/2005 | | | |AND 12/30/2005 WERE |AND 12/30/2005 HOW | | | |THERE PHYSICAL OR |MANY INMATE ON | | | |SEXUAL ASSAULTS |INMATES ASSAULTS | |X1_race_white |Pearson Correlation |-.391(**) |.341(**) | | |Sig. (2-tailed) |.000 |.000 | | |N |1631 |1665 | |X1_race_black |Pearson Correlation |-.453(**) |.392(**) | | |Sig. (2-tailed) |.000 |.000 | | |N |1625 |1657 | |X1_race_ethnicity_Hispanic |Pearson Correlation |-.290(**) |.202(**) | | |Sig. (2-tailed) |.000 |.000 | | |N |1450 |1479 | ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). As seen above in Table 7, both White and Black race, as well as Hispanic ethnicity, were statistically significantly related to dependent variables Y1 and Y3. Y2 is not shown in the table format because neither race nor ethnicity was related to staff deaths by inmates. Again, this may be due to the small number of staff deaths. An odd pattern emerges: Y1 (number of physical and sexual assaults) was significantly and negatively related to all three race/ethnicity variables. On the other hand, Y3 (number of inmate-on-inmate assaults) was positively and significantly related to all three race/ethnicity variables. The reasons for this are not clear, but may have something to do with the meaning of the questions asked for Y1 and Y3. As for the size of the correlation coefficient, it is the highest for Blacks (r= -.453 and .392), next highest for Whites (r= -.391 and .341), and lowest for Hispanics (r= -.29 and .202). Discussion To return to my first original hypothesis that violent prison misconduct is more prevalent among African-American and Hispanic inmates than Caucasians or any other ethnic group I have to say that my findings only partially support that statement. According to my results violence among or by African- American inmates appears to be the highest, and is followed by violence among or by White inmates. However, violence by or among Hispanic inmates is the lowest comparing it to violence among or by other races. Moreover, my findings on the impact of security level of facility on prison violence were not exactly what I expected because they differ depending on a type of an assault. Therefore, they partially support my second hypothesis that inmates who are residing in maximum-security facilities are more violent than inmates residing in medium or minimum-security facilities, especially towards correctional staff. I found that counter to what I expected, super-maximum facilities are not the most dangerous correctional institutions but they have the highest inmate on inmate number of assaults. Findings from this study about how race impact prison violence partially support what I have found previously in the literature review. According to Wayne Gillespie (2005) and my findings White inmates less likely engage in most types of misconduct compared to African-American inmates but not Hispanic inmates. However, my results on the impact of security level of facility and prison violence are interesting because they do support the findings mentioned in the literature review. All the findings suggest that security level does affect the amount of in-facility violence, but that differs by the type of violence. Limitation of the Study While conducting my research by using existing database I had to face a few problems with it. First of all, the database I found had a lot of variables, which had a value that was missing. Second of all, when I ran the tests such as descriptive or frequencies it was hard to describe the results because they were confusing. I wasn’t sure in some cases if the results showed me the number of inmates or the number of facilities. I tried to go back and find the answers in the codebook, which didn’t really contain much more information than the database. Moreover, the meaning of the questions that were asked, especially for dependent variables, wasn’t clear and I believe it impacted somehow the results of the tests I ran. References Blackburn, A. G., Mullings, J. L., Marquart, J. W., Trulson, C. R. (2007). The next generation of prisoners: Toward an understanding of violent institutionalized delinquents. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 5(1), 35-56. Document ID: 1541204006295156. Camp, S. D., Gaes, G. G., Langan, N. P., Saylor, W. G. (2003). The influence of prisons on inmate misconduct: A multilevel investigation. Justice Quarterly, JQ, 20(3), 501-533. Document ID: 434413761. Cunningham, M. D., Sorensen, J. R. (2007). Predictive factors for violent misconduct in close custody. The Prison Journal, 87(2), 241-253. Document ID: 0032885507303752. DeLisi, M., Berg, M. T., Hochstetler, A. (2004). Gang members, career criminals and prison violence: Further specification of the importation model of inmate behavior. Criminal Justice Studies, 17(4), 369-383. Document ID: 10.1080/1478601042000314883. Gillespie Wayne, (2005). Racial differences in violence and self-esteem among prison inmates. American Journal of Criminal Justice: AJCJ, 29(2), 161-V. Document ID: 972985931. Griffin, M. L., Hepburn, J. R. (2006). The effects of gang affiliation on violent misconduct among inmates during the early years of confinement. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 33(4), 419-448. Document ID: 0093854806288038. Irvin, J., Cressey, D. (1962). Thieves, convicts, and the inmate culture. Social Problems, 10, 142-155. Jiang, S., Fisher-Giorlando, M. (2002). Inmate misconduct: A test of the deprivation, importation, and situational models. The Prison Journal, 82(3), 335-358. Document ID: 003288550208200303. Jiang, S., Fisher-Giorlando, M., Mo, L. (2005). Social support and inmate rule violation: A multilevel analysis. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 30(1), 71-89. Retrieved from http://proquest.umi.com Ruddell, R., Decker, S. H., Egley Jr., A. (2006). Gang intervention in jails: A national analysis. Criminal Justice Review, 31(1), 33-46. Document ID: 0734016806288263. Sorensen, J., Cunningham, M.D. (2008). Conviction offense and prison violence: A comparative study of murderers and other offenders. Crime and Delinquency, 56(1), 103-125. Document ID: 0011128707307175. Steiner, B., Wooldredge, J. (2008). Inmate versus environmental effects on prison rule violations. Criminal Justice and Behavioral, 35(4), 438. Document ID: 1455568521. Wolff, N., Shi, J., Siegel, J. (2009). Patterns of vict imization among male and female inmates: Evidence of an Enduring Legacy. Violence and Victims, 24(4), 469-84. Document ID: 1825737261. Wooldredge, J., Griffin, T., Pratt, T. (2001). Considering hierarchical models for research on inmate behavior: Predicting misconduct with multilevel data. Justice Quarterly, 18(1), 203-231. Retrieved from http:// proquest.umi.com

Mind Sports :: essays research papers

It seems almost like an oxymoron to combine the words mind and sport especially when the "sport" under consideration is chess. It is difficult to picture the game as a sport when the most physical activity it seems to require is moving the pieces across the board. Recently, though, the Olympic committee voted chess legal for competition in "The Games." This acknowledgment of chess as a sport by such a high council requires us to rethink our view of chess and athletics. Although chess does not appear to require as much activity as most recognizable sports, it does require as much, if not more, preparation and time. A study done at Temple University found that chess drains energy at a rate that compares to football. Some of the best chess players in history regarded athletic training as an essential part of success in the game. Both Bobby Fischer and Garry Kasparov lifted weights. They used other physical conditioning techniques as well, not necessarily for their health, but because of the amount of stamina the game requires at high levels of competition. It is not uncommon for a professional player to lose 10 to 15 pounds during the course of a match. Matches can last as long as a month, with one game every day, eight hours each. Over 120 countries officially consider chess a sport. The Unites States is not one of them. That may be because we seem to have a very narrow-minded view of what exactly a sport is. Ask any random person if chess should be considered a sport, and the most likely response will be hysterical laughter, yet more people play chess competitively than any other game in the world, and more books have been published on chess than any other subject. Most of those players and authors firmly believe that chess is harder to be good at than any other game or sport. The thought of chess as a sport probably just never occurred to most people. Playing in a chess tournament is akin to taking a test that has not been studied for but that will decide something important, except that chess also has the added problem of time. Imagine taking that test with a time limit, like the SAT’s for example, but that the clock that is keeping the time gives off a faint ticking sound. In a large room that is completely silent the only thing audible will be that noise, it is extremely nerve-racking for any inexperienced tournament player.

Introduction To Poetry

Introduction To Poetry October 21, 2013 A relationship between two lovers is a bond that when broken, can be hard to get over. It's hard to undo feelings for someone whom youVe built so much trust and compassion with. It takes a strong person to forgive someone who has stopped loving you when you still love him or her. And even then, it takes a stronger person to see that ex-lover and be able to talk to them in a civil and friendly manner. Women tend to find it harder to do this than men due to the feelings and trust that they put into men, who are already viewed as Jerks that only care about them.Carolyn Kizer, author of â€Å"Bitch,† is Just like those women and shows anger toward her ex-lover. She shows her maturity and strength and doesn't allow him to spark a reaction that shows she wants him back. This is the first time that Kizer is meeting with her old lover in some time. It is clear that it has been a while because she says, ‘after all these years† (1). As the conversation continues, we see more reasons that it has been a number of years since they have seen each other.She starts off the greeting with a simple hello and then asks, â€Å"How are the children? They must be growing up† (9). This shows that they have been broken up long enough for him to have more than one child. Also, she says, â€Å"they must be growing up† (9), so they must be getting big and are more than a few years old. Another sign they haven't seen each other in a while is when she says, â€Å"It's nice to know you are doing so well† (28). This is something someone would only say if they haven't seen or heard from someone in some time, but is happy to have seen them.Kizer also knows he isn't hurting her anymore so there's no reason to be hostile toward him, but the bitch inside her doesn't feel the same way. The bitch inside her wants to call him out and yell at him because of the pain that he put her through, but she tries to quiet that bitc h and says, â€Å"don't start growling† (2). While still fighting the bitch inside her, she says, â€Å"nice to see you† (5), as the bitch begins to â€Å"bark hysterically' (6). The barking is her inner anger building, but she continues to fght it, asking herself â€Å"where are your manners† (8).She doesn't want the inner bitch to ruin a friendly conversation between her and her old companion. He says something nice to her after she asks about the children and she sees a familiar situation. Finally she has broken the anger barrier and her inner bitch â€Å"begins to whimper† (11) and Just wants to snuggle up with the man she used to love so much. â€Å"He isn't an enemy now' (7) realizes the bitch. There's no reason for her to live in the past and make herself feel worse anymore. They have both moved on, but she has to keep the bitch away from him saying â€Å"down, girl!Keep your distance† (13) or she'll have to punish her for trying to bring old feelings back to life. As â€Å"she slobbers and grovels,† (16) she subsides and takes control of her â€Å"basically loyal† (17) self. Obviously her self is supposed to be loyal to her. As her inner self tarts to sit on the sideline during the conversation, she begins to reminisce. She remembers how she would run toward his comfort whenever â€Å"she heard his step† (19). When he was too busy for her loving devotion, he would send â€Å"her to the c en† (22).Kizer didn't get the tull attection that sne wanted, and yet it was the â€Å"small careless kindnesses† (24) that she adored so much. The good days that he had or if he had a few drinks are the days that were more important to her than â€Å"the casual cruelties† (27). She enjoyed the times when they were nice to each other and cared for each other, although they seemed to be short in number. It's nice to know you are doing so well† (28), shows that she still cared for him li ke anyone would care for a friend.Kizer tells the bitch â€Å"he couldn't have taken you with him† (29), because he cared too much and was â€Å"too clumsy' (30) unlike his new wife and kids. She was too attached to him and was clingy, but now in his new life he has a wife and kids that love him but give him his space when he needs it. He has a new life where he is comfortable, happy and shares it with the ones he loves. As those few minutes of catching up comes to an end, she asks him to â€Å"Give [her} regards to [his] wife† (32). They begin to part as they say their goodbyes.Trying not to trip up and release any emotion, Kizer ends their conversation with â€Å"Nice to have seen you again† (34). It is tough for someone to tell an ex-lover to say hello, or give his or her regards to their wife. No one wants to see someone they used to love and share a life together with enjoying life with someone else. But not all relationships are meant to last. A true rela tionship will come in time, so it is better not to dwell on what could have been and look forward to what could be. So, Kizer's poem shows how we should be able to turn an old, close partner to a friend.

Certain Catalysts Can Affect Change, Gow’s Away Compared to the Help

People can act as catalysts for change. Both Gow and Taylor use the main character’s circumstances to affect change in attitude amongst the other characters. In ‘Away’, Tom’s fatal illness causes the other characters to realise the value of their lives and become more positive about life. In ‘The help', Skeeter’s mission to write a book to uncover the harsh mistreatment of the African American helpers to change the white community’s attitude. In both texts the authors use techniques appropriate to their medium to demonstrate this change in attitude. In ‘The Help’ the character Skeeter is the catalyst for change. The change she causes is a change in mentality towards the African American helpers. This change in mentality is represented through Skeeter’s mother. Gow uses contrasting scenes to show the mother’s change in mentality, which is also represented through the general change in the attitude of the white community. This is shown through the juxtaposition of the early scene where Skeeter and her helpers are sitting in the television room watching an African American speak on TV. Skeeter’s mother finds them watching the African American and commands them to turn it off. With the use of a low camera angle Skeeter’s mother shows authority and power over the African American helpers as well as Skeeter herself. In the end scene Skeeter and the African American helpers are watching the same thing on TV. Skeeter sees her mother and goes to turn off the TV. Skeeter’s mother says to leave it on and joins them on the couch. The camera angle changes in this scene from the early scene whereby Taylor makes use of a low camera angle. Skeeter’s mother does not show authority or power over everyone including the African American helpers. Skeeter is shocked by this change in attitude, but is happy that her mother is finally changing her mentality towards the helpers. Therefore through the use of contrasting camera angles, Taylor shows a change in attitude, brought about by the catalyst of Skeeter’s character. In ‘Away’, Gow also uses the main character as the catalyst for change. Like in â€Å"The Help†, the change he causes is a change in mentality of the other characters. This change occurs due to Tom’s fatal illness, which makes the other characters in the play become more positive and realise how precious life is. The change in mentality is shown through one particular character, Gwen. The techniques used to show the change in mentality is the use of stage directions and dialogue. The use of these techniques show the way that Gwen changes her attitude towards life. At the beginning of the play, the use of repetition of the word ‘no’ demonstrates her negativity. This negativity is changed when Gwen finds out that Tom has a fatal illness and does not have very long to live. This causes Gwen to see her life in a different mentality, changing her into a nicer and more appreciative person. This is shown through the technique of stage directions in the final scene of the play, where ‘the applause is led thunderously by Gwen’. This technique shows the shift in mentality to a much more positive outlook on life. In conclusion, both Gow and Taylor show how people can act as catalysts for change. In both ‘Away’ and ‘The Help’ the main characters are the catalysts for a change in mentality. This change is a time consuming process, however both Gow and Taylor show how valuable this change can be.

How to Do a Tombstone Rubbing

How to Do a Tombstone Rubbing Tombstone rubbings are commonly used by family history researchers as a method for preserving a tombstones inscription. Learn how to do a grave rubbing safely, and when to use an alternative method of cemetery documentation. How to Do a Tombstone Rubbing Get permission. Check with the cemetery or with the state or local historical society to learn if tombstone rubbings are permissible. This practice has been banned in some areas and cemetery locations due to the damage it can cause.Be sure that the tombstone that you have chosen is sturdy and stable.  Do NOT do a tombstone rubbing on any stone that is wobbly, flaking, chipping, crumbling or otherwise unstable. Take a photograph instead.If allowed, clean the tombstone with plain water and a soft bristle (natural or nylon) brush.  Scrub the stone from the bottom up to avoid further streaking and staining.   Flush well with water when you are done. Again, do not do this on a stone that is crumbling, chipping or flaking.Cut a piece of plain white paper, butcher paper, rice paper or Pellon interfacing material to a size slightly larger than the tombstone. You can obtain rice paper from art supply stores and Pellon from craft and fabric shops.Tape the paper or fabric to the graveston e.   Make sure that it is secure so that it wont slide as you are rubbing and cause a blurred image, and that it ​covers the face of the stone completely so that you wont get marks on the tombstone when rubbing. If you have someone with you to assist, then you may prefer to have them hold the paper to avoid any possible damage from using tape. Using rubbing wax, a large crayon, charcoal, or chalk, gently start to rub along the outside edges of your paper or material, carefully working your way in. Or you may choose to begin at the top and work your way down the tombstone.Rub lightly to start with, and then apply more pressure to darken in the design if it suits you. Be very careful and gentle so as not to damage the tombstone.If you used chalk for your grave rubbing, then carefully spray the paper with a chalk spray such as Krylon.  Hairspray is another alternative. Be very careful not to get any on the tombstone.When the rubbing is done, carefully remove it from the tombstone and trim the edges to suit your liking.If you used interfacing for your tombstone rubbing, then place the material face up on an ironing board with an old towel over it. Press down with a hot iron (dont use a back-and-forth motion) to permanently set the wax into the fabric. Tips for a Better Tombstone Rubbing Interfacing material is an especially good material for tombstone rubbings because it doesnt tear and folds without creasing for easy travel.Caught without supplies? In a pinch, you can use  green leaves to do the rubbing as long as you can put your hands on some paper.Consider other methods of preserving the tombstone inscription such as photographs or foil casts as an alternative to the potentially damaging tombstone rubbing.Practice makes perfect! Before going to the cemetery, contact a local monuments store to see if you can practice rubbings on one of their tombstones.Check local laws before visiting the cemetery. Some countries dont even allow tombstones to be photographed without the permission of the cemetery keeper.Be sure to pick up any trash and leave the cemetery just as you found it.

Defining Portraits and Portraiture in Art

Defining Portraits and Portraiture in Art Portraits are works of art that record the likenesses of humans or animals that are alive or have been alive. The word  portraiture  is used to describe this category of art. The purpose of a portrait is to memorialize an image of someone for the future. It can be done with painting, photography, sculpture, or almost any other medium. Some portraiture is also created by artists purely for the sake of creating art, rather than working on commission. The human body and face are fascinating subjects that many artists like to study in their personal work. Types of Portraits in Art One could speculate that the majority of portraits are created while the subject is still alive. It may be a single person or a group, such as a family. Portrait paintings go beyond simple documentation, it is the artists interpretation of the subject. Portraits can be realistic, abstract, or representational.   Thanks to photography, we can easily capture records of what people look like throughout their life. This was not possible prior to the invention of the medium in the mid-1800s, so people relied on painters to create their portrait.   A painted portrait today is often seen as a luxury, even more than it was in previous centuries. They tend to be painted for special occasions, important people, or simply as artwork. Due to the cost involved, many people choose to go with photography instead of hiring a painter. A posthumous portrait is one that is rendered after the death of the subject. It can be achieved by either copying another portrait or following instructions of the person who commissions the work. Single images of the Virgin Mary, Jesus Christ, or any saints are not considered portraits. They are called devotional images. Many artists also choose to do a self-portrait. It is a work of art depicting the artist created by their own hand. These are typically made from a reference photo or by looking in a mirror. Self-portraits can give you a good sense of how an artist views themselves and, quite often, it is rather introspective. Some artists will regularly create self-portraits, some just one in their lifetime, and others will not produce any. Portraiture as Sculpture While we tend to think of a portrait as a two-dimensional piece of artwork, the term can also apply to sculpture. When a sculptor focuses on just the head or the head and neck, it is called a  portrait. The word  bust is used when the sculpture includes part of the shoulder and breast. Portraiture and Appropriation Usually, a portrait records the subjects features, though it often also tells something about them. A portrait of the art historian Robert Rosenblum (1927–2006) by Kathleen Gilje captures the sitters face. It also celebrates his outstanding Ingres scholarship through the appropriation of Jean-Auguste-Domonique Ingres portrait of the Comte de Pastoret (1791- 1857). Ingres portrait was completed in 1826 and Giljes portrait was completed in 2006, several months before Rosenblums death in December. Robert Rosenblum collaborated on the choice of appropriation. Representative Portraiture Sometimes a portrait includes inanimate objects that represent the subjects identity. It doesnt necessarily have to include the subject itself. Francis Picabias portrait of Alfred Stieglitz  Ici, Cest Ici Stieglitz (Here is Stieglitz, 1915, Stieglitz Collection, Metropolitan Museum of Art) depicts only a broken bellows camera. Stieglitz was a famous photographer, dealer, and Georgia OKeeffes husband. The early twentieth-century Modernists loved machines and Picabias affection for both the machine and Stieglitz is expressed in this work. The Size of Portraits Portraiture can come in any size. When a  painting was the only way to capture a persons likeness, many well-to-do families chose to memorialize people in portrait miniatures. These paintings were often done in enamel, gouache, or watercolor on animal skin, ivory, velum, or a similar support. The details of these tiny portraits- often just a couple of inches- are amazing and created by extremely talented artists. Portraits can also be very large. We often think of paintings of royalty and world leaders hanging in enormous halls. The canvas itself can, at times, be larger than the person was in real life. However, the majority of painted portraiture falls in between these two extremes. Leonardo da Vincis Mona Lisa (ca. 1503) is probably the most famous portrait in the world and it was painted on  a 2-foot, 6-inch by 1-foot, 9-inch poplar panel. Many people do not realize how small it is until they see it in person.

From Literacy to Electracy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

From Literacy to Electracy - Essay Example This rote memorization is not uncommon in other religions besides Islam itself. Christians also emphasize the importance of hiding words in one's heart with regards to the Bible (both with the Old and the New Testaments, but especially the New Testament). Many cultures are orally-based cultures, which is to say, they have no need for writing. "The Brazilian Indians sporadically studiedbetween 1935 and 1939, as well as the American Indian and Polynesian and African tribes who have figured in other reports, exemplify societies which....did not require the support of a developed orality with a complex vocabulary."1 Julian Jaynes notes, from a scientist's perspective, that "In the last paragraph of The Origin of Species, [Darwin] implies that God created mind and body in the first primitive organisms and then both evolved in parallel together."2 If this is true, then the mind had as much importance as the body, and consequentially, what a human said. "But this sunk the problem in metaphysics, and it was soon realized that there should be some criterion of consciousness. It seemed obvious in the empiricist climate of the time that this was learning. So the question became: when did learning originate in evolution"3 The answer is, learning evolved with the word. This is because, before reading or writing of any stripe, the spoken word came first. This is the basis of all of our literacy and electracy, ultimately-the linguistic representation of some form of information. Ultimately, people became seemingly uber-sophisticated, and a new avenue of expression came into being. III. Literacy Tribes, as well as individuals, are having a difficult time with literacy. As Barton states, "There are common social practices associated with learning."4 Being able to read and write well (in print) is what truly makes humans superior to other animals. What truly distinguishes men from the beasts is the fact that humans can not only verbalize (which is orality), but they can read and write languages due to the advanced development of their brain structures. "'Civilized' peoples have long contrasted themselves with 'primitive' or 'savage' peoples[which] should be replaced by 'without writing.'"5 Interestingly enough, the phenomena has occurred that people are now less able to read books as a result of the fact that everyone is now living in a post-literate society-post-literate meaning that the use of visual images is more favorable than materials that people can actually see to read. "Bruce Freidmanhas described how the Internet has altered his mental habits. 'I now have almost totally lost the ability to read and absorb a longish article on the web or in print,' he wrote earlier this year'I can't read War and Peace anymore,' he admitted. 'I've lost the ability to do that. Even a blog post of more than three or four paragraphs is too much to absorb. I skim it."6 This is the beginning of electracy. IV. Electracy "Part of electracy (which is to the Internet what literacy is to print) is to help citizens think with the image."7 Increasingly, visual images are becoming the new book for individuals as well as schools. In fact, no one has the time to read a book. Truthfully, why would someone read a book when he or she can